By Melisa C Baldwick
‘We are living on this planet as if we had another one to go to.’
– Terry Swearingen, Nurse & Winner of Goldman Environmental Prize in 1997
Table of Contents
1. Introduction: The Importance of ESD
2. Definitions
3. Historical Snapshot
4. Examples of ESD Programmes in Hong Kong
4.1. Energy Monitoring and Management
4.2. Experiential Learning and Environmental Education
4.3. ESD Project Schools
5. Implementation
6. Conclusion
7. References
8. About the Author
1. Introduction: The Importance of ESD
7 billion and growing. The number of people living on Earth. But, unfortunately, not a growing number of resources. According to the United Nations (UN) (2017), by 2030 there will be another 1 billion people living on our planet. If humans want to be able to live with the necessities that are desired and leave enough for future generations, then there needs to be a shift in education so that it becomes more focused on sustainability. This view is supported by the research done by the Canadian Chamber of Commerce in Hong Kong (2004) that ranked priorities to support Hong Kong in moving closer to sustainable development. The findings revealed that the educational system is the most important factor. In particular, ‘innovative teaching methods and comprehensive personal development are the important issues within education that should be improved’ (Luo et al., n/d, p. 58). In this regard, Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) becomes critical at all levels of education as it aims ‘to empower learners to transform themselves and the society they live in by developing knowledge, skills, attitudes, competencies and values’ (UNESCO, 2014).
The focus of this entry is on how ESD is being taught in primary schools in Hong Kong, both in international and local schools, using experiential learning as a lens. Recent literature is limited on research into primary schools and ESD in Hong Kong. Noting this, the encyclopedia entry attempts to examine how experiential education has been combined with the in-school primary curriculum to effectively teach ESD. Presented first are the definitions of the terms ESD and experiential learning. Following that is a snapshot of the history of ESD in Hong Kong. Next, the entry provides examples of experiential learning being used to teach ESD. Lastly, the entry examines how ESD can be better implemented into primary schools.
2. Definitions
ESD can be defined in a number of ways, making it no exception of terms used in the social sciences. Arguments circulate that when ESD is broken down by context it becomes an ‘empty signifier’ eventually lessening any chance of it being defined and understood because in some sense the term relies on openness to be understood by the masses (Bengtsson and Ostman, 2013). A challenge faced by educators and researchers in the field of ESD is the array of definitions, some of which are complementary, some of which are contradictory, and some that have evolved over time (Jackson, 2018). This entry relies on the definition developed by UNESCO (2014) that sees ESD as lifelong learning that allows learners to make informed decisions and responsible actions for the environment, the economy, and society. ESD is transformative and holistic, and involves changes in content knowledge, attitudes, and behaviours (UNESCO, 2014). This broad definition allows ESD to be defined within different contexts in order for it to make the most difference locally.
Similarly, experiential education has been very broadly defined: from John Dewey in the early 20th century (Colucci-Gray, 2011) promoting the importance of experiences in the classroom to defining experiential education as service learning, community service, volunteerism, field education, and internships (Sigmon, 1997). For example, the Education Bureau curriculum documents encourage that assignments should have a ‘relevance to daily life’ (2017, p. 150) and offers example of experiential learning involving taking students on field trips, service learning, and cross-border exchange programmes. This entry adopts the definition that experiential learning is learning through an experience.
A number of studies highlight and maintain the importance of real-world experiences in ESD (Wiek et al., 2009). Kaye (2012) identified a number of benefits from participating in experiential learning and service learning. They include a growth of application skills; development of research skills and higher order thinking in students; increased student voice (agency); an awareness of the purposeful process seen by students; and increased reflection on and value of the intrinsic successes over extrinsic rewards in students. A plethora of studies have found that students gain more understanding of concepts connected to sustainability when participating in real world learning experiences (Brundiers et al., 2010; Kaye 2009; Molderez and Elsa Fonseca 2018).
Linking the concepts of ESD and experiential education together is the renowned definition of ESD by Scott and Vare (2007) which identifies two types of ESD: ESD1 and ESD2. The first category, ESD1 is based on curriculum knowledge. It involves promoting changes in student thinking and behaviour. It is learning for sustainable development. ESD2 encompasses applying skills, thinking critically, especially about contradictions, and taking action. It is learning assustainable development. The standpoint is that ESD1 and ESD2 can be taught simultaneously, as they complement each other. Experiential education can be the perfect ESD2 to complement ESD1, the taught curriculum.
3. Historical Snapshot
In 1992, the Curriculum Development Council issued Guidelines on Environmental Education in schools. In 1999, these guidelines were revised following the Environmental Campaign Committee’s push to involve young people in green activities. In 2003-2004, 8 projects were funded by the Sustainable Development Fund in Hong Kong. Specifically related to education was the Education for Sustainable Development Project. The project lasted 20 months and included almost 50 primary schools. The project’s goal was to develop teaching and learning resources to support school curriculums in developing a framework for ESD as well as to increase awareness and knowledge for all stakeholders in education, teachers, parents, students, and community helpers. A final goal was to give students more opportunity in community problem solving and environmental improvement. The project involved training for members of the school community (teachers, helpers, parents), workshops, and creating an online resource database (Lee et al., 2009). Presently, the Education Bureau (EDB) of Hong Kong includes ESD as a concept to be specifically taught as part of the General Studies curriculum (EDB, 2017).
4. Examples of ESD Programmes in Hong Kong
4.1. Energy Monitoring and Management
An article by Bray in the South China Morning Post (2018) detailed an international school that uses a stop light system in their classroom. The light would alert the students when their energy usage had switched from being powered by renewable energy to being powered by the fossil-fuel grid. When the light changed from green to yellow, the students rushed around the classroom to turn off lights or air-conditioners to immediately change their environmental impact.
Another school identified by Lee and colleagues (2009) took ESD beyond the classroom. Teachers led their students to implement sustainable development auditing in the school. Students were accountable to report on their findings and bring their concerns to the heads of school. They looked into how money saved from energy could be reinvested into student activities. Students went beyond collecting data and used a variety of skills to draw conclusions from the data and to make recommendations about sustainable development within their school.
4.2. Experiential Learning and Environmental Education
Lee and colleagues (2000) conducted case studies of primary schools in Hong Kong looking at how Environmental Education (EE) (considered part of ESD) could be incorporated in the current curriculum. Teachers wanted a way to fit EE into the already full curriculum, without compromising other learning areas. The authors looked at three schools that had made themselves reputable for their EE.
One school initiated a four-day programme which involved environmental activities being taught in separate subjects, such as Mathematics, English, and Music. Specifically connected to experiential education, older students went to collect water samples and study the pollution in their area. Another school focused on experiential learning by running a four-month long project encouraging students to get involved in environmental competitions. Some competitions required students to change their behaviour, such as adopting energy saving methods. The school also recognised environmentally friendly homes. In addition to this, the students planted vegetables onsite and collected newspapers to be recycled.
These experiential learning activities resulted in students being more likely to take on environmental responsibility and to adopt pro-environment behaviour. Their creativity was enhanced by being involved in slogan design and green products, and their application skills were enhanced as they used what they learned in the classroom in their environmental projects.
The aforementioned learning experiences did not encompass the other pillars of sustainability. Absent were the social and economic concepts that are the other two pillars of sustainable development. As this article intended to look at ESD in full, the relevant EE curriculum activities can still be considered as useful examples of experiential learning.
4.3. ESD Project Schools
The case studies mentioned in the book Schooling for Sustainable Development in Chinese Communities (Lee et al., 2009) were of one to three grades in different primary schools in Hong Kong. The schools considered were involved in the ESD Project mentioned in the history section of this entry (see section 3). This project intended to develop web-based resources for teaching and learning, increase awareness of sustainable development, and to empower primary schools in community issues and improving their community. After reviewing the three cases, a general trend was revealed that teachers preferred to integrate ESD into the general studies area of the curriculum. Many of the primary schools had introduced project-based learning with some enquiry as a way to teach ESD, as this was a new curriculum initiative in Hong Kong at the time.
5. Implementation
All of these are examples of differing levels of experiential learning used to teach ESD. Another question remains, how can it be implemented? Looking at Hong Kong with its heavy content-based curriculum, it has been proposed that ESD should be used as a guiding principle to enhance learning and integrate it into different parts of the curriculum (Lee et al., 2009; Lee et al., 2016). This falls in line with ESD2, in that it is not only content based, but also skills based. Evidenced before, project-based learning can help serve that learning with a purpose, similar to experiential learning.
Is this solely the responsibility of teachers? Kaye (2012) recommended that every stakeholder be involved, from the principal to the administration staff to the cleaners. It should be a top down and bottom up implementation, as a whole school approach, involving the ethos and structure of schools (UNESCO, 2014). This is important because a ‘successful transformative ESD implementation strategy should focus on school organisation qualities that integrate internal and external ESD approaches’ (Morgren and Gericke, 2017, p.1010). Additionally, a strong leader to direct the vison of ESD is a necessity (Breiting et al., 2005; Owens and Valesky, 2007; Scott, 2013). The ideal implementation of the aforementioned ideas would mean that policy would be reflected in practice. Ultimately, teachers will do what they see fit in their classroom. Educating teachers about ESD and engaging them in lifelong learning could be a possible solution to this issue (Kwo, 2011). Similar to students, educating teachers using experiential learning and concepts from ESD1 and ESD2 could lead teachers to be more likely to instill these values and practices in the classroom. As Lee and colleagues (2009) rightly point out,
. . . the professional development of teachers for ESD is of paramount importance. Such professional development activities, however, need to be less theoretical and more practical so that teachers are enabled to understand and apply the concepts of ESD into their teaching and learning practices. (p. 193)
6. Conclusion
ESD is quickly becoming a necessity in education. Not only for teaching essential knowledge and skills, but also as a way to continue to grow economies and create healthy societies without threatening the planet’s environment. This entry began by looking back at ESD, then defining the key terms of ESD and experiential education. Next it was explained how these concepts can work together to teach ESD by giving examples of experiential learning being used to teach ESD in primary schools. The last section focused on recommendations and obvious challenges faced by schools to implement ESD. To conclude, it is evident that experiential learning lends itself to be a pedagogy utilised when teaching ESD. Not only does it reinforce the values and awareness of ESD1, but it also exercises the skills and action taking learned in ESD2. Experiential learning can thus be an optimal tool when teaching ESD.
7. References
Bengtsson, S.L., & Ostman, L.O. (2013). Globalisation and Education for Sustainable Development: Emancipation from Context and Meaning. Environmental Education Research 19(4), 477 - 498.
Bray, M. (2008, June 4). How Two Green Schools in Hong Kong are Teaching Sustainability to Children and Leading the Way in Local Education Community. South China Morning Post. Retrieved from:https://www.scmp.com/lifestyle/article/2148898/how-two-green-schools-hong-kong-are-teaching-sustainability-children-and
Breiting, S, Mayer, M., & Mogensen, F. (2005) Environment and School Initiatives. Quality criteria for ESD-Schools 2005. Retrieved from https://www.ensi.org/global/downloads/Publications/208/QC-GB.pdf
Brundiers, K., Wiek, A., & Redman, C.L. (2010). Real-world Learning Opportunities in Sustainability: From Classroom into the Real World. International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, 11(4), 308-324. doi: 10.1108/14676371011077540
Colucci-Gray, L. (2011). Experiential Education. In Newman, J. (Ed.) Green Education: An A-to-Z Guide (The SAGE Reference Series on Green Society Toward a Sustainable Future) (pp. 169-172). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.
Education Bureau (EDB). (2017). General Studies Curriculum Guide for Primary Schools (Primary 1-Primary 6). Retrieved from https://www.edb.gov.hk/attachment/en/curriculum-development/cross-kla-studies/gs-primary/GSCG_2017_Eng.pdf
Jackson, L. (2018). Education for Sustainable Development: From Environmental Education to Broader Views. In I. Management Association (Ed.). Sustainable Development: Concepts, Methodologies, Tools, and Applications (pp. 1-25). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-3817-2.ch001
Kaye, C. (2009). Service-Learning: The Time is Now. Middle Ground, 13(2), 10-12. Retrieved from https://search-proquest-com.eproxy.lib.hku.hk/docview/216684714?accountid=14548
Kaye, C. (2012). Greening the Curriculum by Combining Green Learning and Service Learning, Schools can Improve Student Learning and Remake their Communities. The Education Digest, 78(2), 10-15. Retrieved from https://search-proquest-com.eproxy.lib.hku.hk/docview/1081805070?accountid=14548
Kwo, O. (2011). Strategic Action for Teacher Education in ESD: A Framework for a UNESCO-Led Leadership Force. Paris: UNESCO.
Lee, J., Lam, W., & Williams, M. (2009). The Education for Sustainable Development Project in Hong Kong. In J. Lee, & M. Williams. (Eds.), Schooling for Sustainable Development in Chinese Communities (pp. 157 - 176). Springer.
Lee, S.W., Ma, S.C.W., & Lee, N. (2016). Practicing the Integration of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) into the School Curriculum. International Journal of Comparative Education and Development, 18(4), 219 - 245.
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Lee, J., Williams, M., & Lam, W. (2009). Case Studies from the Education for Sustainable Development Project in Hong Kong. In J. Lee, & M. Williams. (Eds.), Schooling for Sustainable Development in Chinese Communities (pp. 177 - 193). Springer.
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8. About the Author
Melisa C Baldwick
MEd, The University of Hong Kong
Email: mbaldwick@gmail.com