By Anna Dinh
Table of Contents
1. Introduction
2. Background
3. Education and Support Services for Female Trafficking Survivors
3.1. Vocational Education Services
3.2. Health Education and Services
3.3. Psychological Support Services
3.4. Housing Support Services
4. Challenges of Service Implementation
5. Recommendations
6. References
7. About the Author
1. Introduction
Human trafficking traces back centuries and is deeply rooted in the history of civilization. It is not bound by geographical region, race, age,or gender. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) (2017) defines human trafficking as recruiting and transporting people and holding power over them through acts of organ removal, sexual abuse, forced labor, or domestic servitude. This ubiquitous human rights issue has particularly grown rampant in the Asia Pacific Region, which includes countries such as China, India, Thailand, and Vietnam, among many others. Approximately two-thirds of the world’s trafficked victims are found in this part of the world and the majority of those constituents are women (International Labour Organization, 2017). Women and girls in this region are especially vulnerable to trafficking as deeply rooted gender inequalities collide with labor migration.
Vietnam has invested in ongoing efforts to mitigate human trafficking and has implemented laws to help survivors rehabilitate. In May of 2017, Vietnam signed an Action Plan to support the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, with two targets aimed at eradicating human trafficking and tackling gender inequalities (United Nations, 2017). The government and international organizations have initiated health, education, housing, and psychological programs to ease challenges faced by female survivors during recovery and decrease their likelihood of being re-trafficked (US State Department, 2016). The implementation of effective education and support services are vital in helping these women transform into autonomous citizens who can fully participate in the society.
This entry aims to advocate the importance of providing accessible and effective services to assist Vietnamese female trafficking survivors to rehabilitate and reintegrate. The entry commences with a brief background on government and international organization initiatives dedicated to supporting female trafficking survivors in Vietnam. The next sections discuss vocational, health, housing, and psychological programs, and challenges in service implementation. The last section will point to some recommendations to improve the accessibility and effectiveness of the aforementioned services. It must be noted that this entry has a few limitations. First, only four types of services are highlighted due to the limited length of this entry. Therefore, this entry does not serve as a comprehensive overview of all fundamental services provided for female trafficking survivors in Vietnam. Second, in view of the shortage of research and government data on human trafficking in Vietnam, information from other countries is used to supplement gaps in research.
2. Background
The US State Department (2016) identified Vietnam as a 'source country', where women are generally trafficked to such countries as Taiwan and Korea for forced marriages and/or domestic work. However, Vietnamese girls and women often willingly migrate across neighboring borders to seek employment opportunities, only to find themselves coerced into sexual servitude (Bélanger, 2014). Le (2017) described other cases of northern Vietnamese girls kidnapped into China and sold as brides. Although many women are trafficked abroad, in-country trafficking is also prevalent within Vietnam (Kneebone and Debeljak, 2012).
In response to the surge of human trafficking and the need to protect female trafficking survivors, the Vietnamese government and international organizations have launched several initiatives to assist women in recovery. As documented by Kneebone and Debeljak (2012), Vietnam implemented a National Plan of Actionfrom 2004 to 2010 to improve trafficking policies and reintegration services overseen by the Vietnamese Central Women’s Union and Ministry of Labor-Invalids and Social Affairs (MoLISA). Since Vietnamese Central Women’s Unionoversees trafficking prevention and MoLISA manages reception and reintegration, they are typically the first point of contact for female survivors before receiving assistance from local nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) (Kneebone and Debeljak, 2012).
Several international agencies have taken direct and indirect action to support female survivors in Vietnam. For example, the United Nations Inter-Agency Project on Human Trafficking has published reports and guidebooks featuring methods to assist trafficking survivors in the Asia Pacificregion, providing information on profiles of survivors, difficulties in recovery, and recommendations for assistance. These are invaluable resources for social workers and policy-makers who work alongside trafficking returnees. Other agencies such as the International Organization on Migration (IOM) and Action Aid have established recovery centers and launched anti-human trafficking campaigns (Kneebone and Debeljak, 2012). Many other organizations have focused on vocational education, health services, housing support, and psychological services to assist female trafficking survivors in Vietnam.
3. Education and Support Services for Female Trafficking Survivors
3.1. Vocational Education Services
As mentioned above, human trafficking and labor migration are closely linked. Many women in Vietnam migrate to neighboring countries such as China and Cambodia to seek employment because opportunities may be limited in their home country. Unfortunately, traveling to unfamiliar territories may expose these individuals to violence and trafficking (Bélanger, 2014). Studies have found that trafficking returnees tend to hold low-levels of education, making it difficult for them to find employment and gain financial mobility (Silverman et al., 2007). Thus, females who return home after being trafficked continue to experience limited employment opportunities, whilst struggling with trauma recovery (Kneebone and Debeljak, 2012; Zimmerman et al., 2003).
Some difficulties in finding employment stem from individuals not knowing where to look for jobs or lacking marketable skills. Therefore, vocational education and job placement services may serve as stepping stones to help women gain financial mobility and independence. Several organizations in Vietnam provide vocational education and indirect job placement. A few notable organizations include Pacific Links Foundation (PALS), Centre for Women and Development (CWD), and Hagar International. According to Surtees (2017), services offered among vocational programs vary widely—some only offer assistance in job placement, others provide technical education, and some provide both. These services can serve as invaluable resources in helping female trafficking survivors find and acquire employment, as this endeavor is extremely difficult to accomplish alone.
3.2. Health Education and Services
Health education and services are essential necessities for female trafficking survivors because they often suffer extreme physical and sexual abuse, which may lead to severe injuries and the contraction of sexually transmitted diseases (Kiss et al., 2015; Zimmerman et al., 2003). Unfortunately, women do not seek medical check-ups and treatment because they may be unaware of their importance. On the other hand, some female survivors may opt out of medical treatment because they are concerned about the high financial costs of medical services. Moreover, treatment facilities may be out of reach for survivors because clinics are sparse and usually located in large cities.
It is vital to educate women on the importance of health check-ups while providing them with affordable and accessible health services. Alliance Anti-Traffic, PALS, and Hagar International are among several NGOs that offer health services for female trafficking returnees in Vietnam. These organizations offer basic health education and collaborate with clinics and hospitals to provide medical check-ups. Through these programs, women can learn about their reproductive health, personal hygiene, and get tested and treated for sexually transmitted diseases (Surtees, 2017). Access to these health services enables female returnees to take charge of their own health and remedy injuries inflicted on them while they were trafficked.
3.3. Psychological Support Services
The battle to overcome trafficking trauma is largely a psychological endeavor; extreme physical and sexual abuse may likely destroy an individual mentally and emotionally. Le (2017) found that many female trafficking survivors often exhibit emotions of denial, suppression, repression, and avoidance. Without proper care and treatment, these emotions may lead to chronic depression. Thus, psychological support services are essential in helping survivors heal from paralyzing trauma.
Several international organizations and NGOs in Vietnam currently provide psychological support programs for female returnees. Hagar International, IOM, PALS, and CWD are a few notable organizations. According to Surtees (2017), these psychological support programs often provide one-on-one and group counselling which is facilitated by social workers. Le (2017) asserted that engaging in therapeutic discussions with social workers and other trafficking survivors can help females reintegrate and construct a new ‘sense of self’. Furthermore, Robjant, Roberts and Katona (2017) suggested that therapy services can reduce the severity of post-traumatic stress disorder exhibited by many female trafficking survivors.
3.4. Housing Support Services
Housing support services aim to provide safe shelter for female trafficking survivors in Vietnam. These services are essential in helping women rehabilitate physically and mentally before reintegrating into society. Shelters can provide female survivors with mental support from social workers and put them in contact with health clinics and hospitals. Moreover, females can develop vocational skills and advance their education while living in safe conditions.
Several organizations such as MoLISA Shelters, PALS, CWD, and Little Rose offer housing and shelter services for female trafficking survivors in Vietnam. Services vary widely among these programs: some offer long-term accommodation while others only provide short-term housing (Surtees, 2017). Some shelters may solely focus on accommodation and meal arrangements, while others provide literacy education and vocational training (Kneebone and Debeljak, 2012).Regardless of the varying foci of programs, housing services serve as an invaluable resource for female survivors and can help them get on the road to recovery.
4. Challenges of Service Implementation
Although the Vietnamese government, international agencies, and NGOs have invested a great deal in promoting rehabilitation programs for female trafficking survivors, there are still challenges in service implementation. According to the US State Department (2016), services remain limited and are sparsely located around Vietnam as a result of inadequate funding. Some programs receive enough funding to acquire qualified staff and resources, while others are left with meager funding and cannot afford qualified staff and vital resources. The uneven distribution of services and funding leads to inequality among women who live in different locations. For instance, female survivors who live in areas with sparse and low-quality services are at a disadvantage compared to those who live in locations with an abundance of higher quality services.
Some vocational services charge female survivors fees and may not teach skills transferable in the labor market (Kneebone and Debeljak, 2012; Surtees, 2013). Health services for female returnees lack resources and training for healthcare providers. Furthermore, the high cost and low quality of healthcare in Vietnam deters some women from seeking medical treatment (Surtees, 2013). Kneebone and Debeljak (2012) stated that psychological support services in Vietnam have a shortage of qualified social workers, compared to Thailand and Cambodia. Furthermore, interviews with female trafficking survivors in Vietnam suggested that low percentages of women seek out shelter service due to fear of being identified and labeled as ‘victims of trafficking’ (Kneebone and Debeljak, 2012; Vijeyarasa, 2010).
5. Recommendations
As mentioned above, education and support services for female trafficking survivors in Vietnam are sparsely located across the country. Some women may have an abundance of services while others may be left with little or no support. The Vietnamese government should increase funding for health, vocational, psychological, and housing services to make them more widespread and accessible. Furthermore, efforts must be put towards collecting data on profiles of female survivors and doing research to identify their needs to improve support services. To improve the consistency among programs, the government should establish best practice indicators to guide programs and their staff. Moreover, social workers and health care professionals in Vietnam should receive training specialized in treating female trafficking survivors.
Human trafficking is a complex issue without a simple solution. Discourse on human trafficking in Vietnam tends to focus on prevalence and prevention techniques. However, discussions should pivot towards rehabilitation and reintegration services for female survivors because the battle against trafficking does not end when women are freed as these women still face immense physical, psychological, and social challenges during recovery. More efforts must be dedicated to improving the quality of education and support services for female trafficking survivors in Vietnam to help them rehabilitate and become active members of society.
6. References
Bélanger, D. (2014). Labor Migration and Trafficking Among Vietnamese Migrants in Asia. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 653(1), 87-106.
International Labour Organization (ILO). (2017). 2017 Global Estimates of Child Labor and Modern Slavery: Asia and the Pacific Regional Brief.Geneva, Switzerland: International Labour Organization.
Kiss, L., Pocock, S. N., Naisanguansri, V., Suos, S., Dickson, B., Thuy, D., Koehler, J., Sirisup, K., Pongrungsee, N., Nguyen, A. V, Borland, R., Dhavan, P., & Zimmerman, C. (2015). Health of Men, Women, and Children in Post-Trafficking Services in Cambodia, Thailand, and Vietnam: An observational Cross-sectional Study. The Lancet Global Health, 3(3), 154-161.
Kneebone, S. & Debeljak, J. (2012). Transnational Crime and Human Rights: Responses to Human Trafficking in The Greater Mekong Sub-Region. London; New York: Routledge.
Le, D. P. (2017). “Reconstructing a Sense of Self” Trauma and Coping Among Returned Women Survivors of Human Trafficking in Vietnam. Qualitative Health Research, 27(4), 509-519.
Robjant, K., Roberts, J., & Katona, C. (2017). Treating Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in Female Victims of Trafficking Using Narrative Exposure Therapy: A Retrospective Audit. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 8(63), 1-6.
Segrave, M., Milivojevic, S., & Pickering, S. (2012). Sex Trafficking. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis.
Silverman, J. G, Decker, M. R., Gupta, J., Maheshwari, A., Patel, V., Willis, B. M., & Raj, A. (2007). Experiences of Sex Trafficking Victims in Mumbai, India. International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics, 97(3), 221-226.
Surtees,R. (2013). After Trafficking: Experiences and Challenges in the Reintegration of Trafficked Persons in the Greater Mekong Sub-Region. Summary Report. Bangkok: UNIAP/NEXUS Institute.
Surtees, R. (2017) Supporting the Reintegration of Trafficked Persons: A Guidebook for the Greater Mekong Sub-Region.Bangkok, Thailand: NEXUS Institute, UN-ACT, and World Vision.
United Nations (UN). (2017). Vietnam National Action Plan for the Implementation of the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda. United Nations General Assembly.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). (2017). What is Human Trafficking?Vienna, Austria: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.
US State Department (2016). ‘Vietnam’Trafficking in Persons Report 2016. Washington, D.C., United States: United States Department of State.
Vijeyarasa, R. (2010). The State, The Family and Language of ‘Social Evils’: Re-stigmatizing Victims of Trafficking in Vietnam. Culture, Health & Sexuality, 12, 89-102.
Zimmerman, C., Yun, K., Shvab, I., Watts, C., Trappolin, L., Treppete, M., Bimbi, F., Adams, B., Jiraporn, S., Beci, L., Albrecht, M., Bindel, J., & Regan, L. (2003). The Health Risks and Consequences of Trafficking in Women and Adolescents: Findings from a European Study. London, England: London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine (LSHTM).
About the Author
Anna Dinh
MEd, The University of Hong Kong
Email: annadinh@connect.hku.hk